⚃ During World War II, Nevitt Sanford (1986) was studying
anti-Semitism and concluded that prejudice arose from deep emotional,
personality-based needs.
⚃ Sanford joined a group investigating “authoritarian
potential.” They were concerned American popular culture was fertile
ground to create political totalitarianism (Jay, 1973). They felt
Americans could be vulnerable to sympathizing with antidemocratic
propaganda and they developed the F (fascist) scale to research the
“potentially fascistic individual.”
⚃ Hypothesis: “that the political, economic, and social
convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern, as
if bound together by a ‘mentality’ or ‘spirit,’
and that this pattern is an expression of deep-lying trends in his
personality” (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950, p. 1).
⚃ Their studies were published in 1950 (Adorno et al., 1950).
⚃ Nine qualities were presented describing the authoritarian
personality, aka ‘authoritarianism’ (Adorno et al., 1950, p.
228):
⚄ 1. Conventionalism. Rigid adherence to conventional,
middle-class values. 2. Authoritarian submission. Submissive, uncritical
attitude toward idealized moral authorities of the ingroup. 3.
Authoritarian aggression. Tendency to be on the lookout for and to
condemn, reject, and punish people who violate conventional values. 4.
Anti-intraception. Opposition to the subjective, the imaginative, the
tender-minded. 5. Superstition and stereotypy. The belief in mystical
determinants of the individual’s fate; the disposition to think in
rigid categories. 6. Power and ‘toughness.’ Preoccupation with
the dominance-submission, strong-weak, leader-follower dimension,
identification with power figures; overemphasis on the conventionalized
attributes of the ego; exaggerated assertion of strength and toughness. 7.
Destructiveness and cynicism. Generalized hostility, vilification of the
human. 8. Projectivity. The disposition to believe that wild and dangerous
things go on in the world; the projection outwards of unconscious
emotional impulses. 9. Sex. Exaggerated concern with sexual
‘goings-on.’
⚃ “These variables were thought of as going together to form a
single syndrome, a more or less enduring structure in the person that
renders him receptive to antidemocratic propaganda” (Adorno et al., 1950,
p. 228).
⚃ Later, Adorno rejected the psychological/Freudian basis of
the published study: “the ultimate source of prejudice has to be sought in
social factors which are incomparably stronger than the
‘psyche’ of any one individual involved” …
“anti-Semitism, fascism, and authoritarianism were due to ‘the total
structure of our society’” (Gordon, 2017, p. 43).
⚃ Adorno explained, “men tend to become transformed into
‘social agencies’ and to lose the qualities of independence
and resistance which used to define the old concept of the individual”
(Gordon, 2017, p. 45).
⚃ Adorno: “People are inevitably as irrational as the world in
which they live” (Gordon, 2017, p. 46).
⚄ “Initially, their theory of the authoritarian personality and
the F scale attracted enormous interest, however, by the early 1960s,
interest in this perspective had largely collapsed because of its numerous
weaknesses” (Duckitt, 2001, p. 42).
⚃ Authoritarian personality: “socially conservative,
nationalistic, intolerant of deviance and outgroups, and politically
right-wing, preferring strict laws and rules, and supporting tough,
punitive social control and authority” (Duckitt, 2013, p. 1).
⚃ Later theorists discarded psychodynamic views, but saw stable
individual differences in these ideological attitudes as a personality
dimension. Altemeyer, developed the construct of Right Wing
Authoritarianism (Duckitt, 2013).
⚃ “Contemporary theories have [therefore] tended to see Right
Wing Authoritarianism (or social conservatism) as influenced by both
personality and situational factors” (Duckitt, 2013, p. 1).
⚃ Vials (2017, p. 7): “Applying this conception to our time,
movements of the right—from the Goldwater campaign to the Tea Party—are
‘rebellions’ ultimately submissive to authority because their
members know that private-sector employers, not the government, are the
real forces in control of daily life.”
⚃ Dr. Piechowski: “The characteristics of authoritarian
personality (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, and Sanford, 1950) seem
to correspond closely to primary integration as well as to the lower
stages in Kohlberg’s and Loevinger’s approach (Schmidt, 1977)”
(Piechowski, 1977, p. 23).
⚃ “Is primary integration a personality structure? To my mind,
one of the five levels is highly problematic. It is Level I or primary
integration. Dr. Dąbrowski viewed primary integration as a rigid
personality structure. The closest to this idea is the concept of
authoritarian personality (Adorno et al., 1950). It began as a study of
personality traits found in prejudiced, or ethnocentric individuals. They
are non-reflective, egocentric and they identify only with their own
group, they lack empathy, insight and self-criticism. Their thinking is
stereotyped, they hold black and white conceptions of good and bad, and
have a tendency toward physical aggression. They view others as objects
and are manipulative and exploitative. They value status, power, and
wealth (Schmidt, 1977). But the study found that prejudice and
ethnocentrism are not built into people but are the result of child
rearing that emphasizes obedience to authority, respect for power, and
which sanctions aggression against all those who are perceived as a
threat. This means that such individuals are made, not born. They are the
outcome of particular socialization which fosters antagonism toward
anything that is different, unfamiliar and contrary to one’s
tradition” (Piechowski, 2002, p. 178).
⚃ “The concept of primary integration –originally called
primitive integration by Dr. Dąbrowski – was not examined until
Margaret Schmidt showed in her thesis that it largely corresponds to the
concept of authoritarian personality (Schmidt, 1977). Authoritarian
personality results from strict parenting and social pressures that
enforce conformity and respect for authority; that is, those who hold
power. Therefore, it is not an integration either inherited genetically or
arrived at by the individual himself” (Piechowski, 2014, p. 13).
⚃ “In regard to ‘authoritarian personality’ and
‘moral disengagement’ it needs to be clarified that we are not
talking about authoritarian personality but authoritarian behavior. We
live in a world in which authoritarian behavior is rampant. Moral
disengagement is an expression of the authoritarian world we live in”
(Piechowski, 2018, March 27, e-mail).
⚃ Dr. Piechowski has ignored Schmidt’s (1977) inclusion
of psychopaths at level I.
⚄ Primary integration corresponds to the authoritarian
personality.
⚄ Authoritarian personality is the best description of behavior
characterizing Level I.
⚄ Such individuals are made, not born; i.e., they are the
outcome of a particular type of socialization.
⚄ Now, not authoritarian personality, rather authoritarian
behavior expressed via moral disengagement, caused by the authoritarian
world we live in (social causes).
⚃ Research for a genetic basis for authoritarian personality:
⚄ “The results do not suggest that, as Adorno et al. (1950)
hypothesized, authoritarian parental behavior or familial structure
induces rigid cognitive functioning as a component of the authoritarian
personality. RWAand intelligence are heritable and family environment does
not predict authoritarianism scores for individuals who are not
genetically related to their rearing parents” (McCourt, Bouchard, Lykken,
Tellegen, & Keyes, 1999, p. 1008).
⚄ “Authoritarianism, as measured by the RWA, is not simply a
manifestation of one’s level of intelligence. Instead it appears to
exist as a trait influenced by genetic factors largely independent of those
that contribute to intelligence” (McCourt, et al., 1999, p. 1008).
⚃ “Facets of RWA’s nomological network have been
revamped. In contrast with the conclusion of Altemeyer (1981, 1988) that
the rearing environment is the primary determinant of attitudes, the
results here support the hypotheses that human beings are active in
creating and choosing their environments and that these transactions with
the environment are influenced in part by the genotype. As Scarr (1997)
has long contended, family environment appears to be an important
influence mainly because it is confounded with genetic relationship”
(McCourt, et al., 1999, p. 1009).
⚃ “individual differences in tendencies to submit to
conventional authorities thus represents driving force behind their
social, political, and religious attitudes (Bouchard, 2009), though the
particular ideas espoused by those high or low in this orientation will
vary among cultures and time periods” (Ludeke, Johnson, & Bouchard, 2013,
p. 376).
⚃ “Our analyses supported the hypothesis that Right-Wing
Authoritarianism, Religiousness, and Conservatism are different measures
of a single underlying trait. These are not merely highly related
constructs, then, but instead are each a manifestation of the same
underlying tendency across the social, political, and religious domains.
With genetic influences contributing 44% of the variance in this latent
trait, the heritability of the TMVT trait was comparable to that found in
studies focusing on single-trait measures in this domain” (Ludeke,
Johnson, & Bouchard, 2013, p. 378).
⚃ “Altemeyer in 1981. His research suggested that only three of
the original nine facets of authoritarianism described by Adorno et al.
(1950) – conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, and
authoritarian submission—covaried strongly to form a unitary social
attitude dimension, and he developed his Right-wing Authoritarianism (RWA)
Scale to measure this dimension” (Duckitt, 2001, p. 42).
⚃ “The core model predictions are that the two socialization
practice dimensions, [1] punitive and [2] unaffectionate socialization,
impact on the two personality dimensions, [1] social conformity and [2]
tough-mindedness respectively, which impact on the two social worldviews,
[1] belief in a dangerous and [2] competitive-jungle world respectively.
Both personality and worldview then impact on RWA and SDO. This core model
thus comprises a theory of the dual psychological bases of the two
ideological attitude dimensions of authoritarianism and social dominance”
(Duckitt, 2001, pp. 58-59).
⚃ “RWA is now also considered an ideological belief (Duckitt,
2001) that people should obey and respect authorities deemed as
legitimate, abide by social conventions, and endorse harsh punishment of
norm violators” (Choma & Hanoch, 2017, p. 287).
⚂ A.11.2 References.
⚃ Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., &
Sanford, N. (1950).
The authoritarian personality.
Harper.
⚃ Babones, S. (2018).
The new authoritarianism: Trump, populism, and the tyranny of experts.
Polity.
⚃ Balakrishnan, A. (2020). Authoritarianism. In B. J. Carducci,
C. S. Nave, A. Fabio, D. H. Saklofske, & C. Stough (Eds.),
The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences
(1st ed., pp. 43–47). Wiley.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119547174.ch184
Authoritarianism
— a psychological construct which has been investigated since the
nineteenth century — refers to an attitudinal orientation where
individuals express hostility toward those who do not conform to an ideal
of sameness or an expected way of being (e.g. minorities, deviants, and
dissidents). Other characteristics of the authoritarian ideology are
excessive concern for the opinions of authority, moral fixedness,
preference for the government to be involved in personal matters, and
conformist attitudes. In the political sphere, authoritarianism has been
used to refer to specific political orientations, e.g. an authoritarian
regime. However, in the psychological literature base, authoritarianism is
seen in a broader sense and reflects a general orientation toward
conformity versus deviance. In this entry, when the term authoritarianism
is used it can be considered as equivalent to the term
right-wing authoritarianism
(RWA) which is frequently used by psychologists. Those who strongly
endorse authoritarianism display a marked preference for both remaining
connected with and valuing their ingroups over outsiders. Additionally,
those who are more authoritarian have a greater tendency to endorse
prejudice in varied forms (e.g. moral regulation or ethnocentrism). With
regard to authoritarian thought processes, higher levels of
authoritarianism have been linked with deficiencies in critical thinking
as well as a belief in the world as being frightening and risk-laden.
…The construct of authoritarianism subsumes three
key underlying concepts which are authoritarian aggression, authoritarian
submission, and conventionalism. Authoritarian aggression is the idea that
authoritarians promote aggressive behaviors toward others when such
behavior is supported by authority figures. This aggression is commonly
directed toward those who are noticeably different (e.g. a social
deviant), but can expand to anyone in the disfavor of authority figures.
Authoritarian submission is the belief that members of authority (e.g.
religious and political leaders) should be fervently supported. In the
case of family, parental figures are seen as credible sources of authority
by authoritarians. Some research suggests that while authoritarians do
submit to authority, this depends on whether the authority figure has a
good reputation and their actions are perceived as being in line with the
goal of the collective. The degree of submission shown by authoritarians
varies based on the credibility of the authority figure. Lastly,
conventionalism is the principle that the existing social norms and order
should be maintained.
…The modern conceptualization of authoritarianism
explicitly acknowledges that the interactive effects between the person
with authoritarian predispositions and the environment either trigger or
suppress the expression of authoritarian attitudes.
⚃ Brownlee, J. (2007).
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…from the outset, the construct of
authoritarianism conflated conservatism and authoritarianism.
…from its very origins, the authoritarianism
literature has suffered from pervasive political bias at the level of both
theory and measurement and practice.
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Debate exists over the core psychological components of
authoritarianism. Some conceptualize authoritarianism as the combined
tendency to obey authorities (authoritarian submission), punish rule
breakers (authoritarian aggression) and conform to tradition
(conventionalism)17,18,19. Others view the desire for conformity over
personal autonomy as the core feature of authoritarianism15,20. Despite
these differences in focus, most agree that authoritarianism involves
obeying high-status leaders from advantaged groups with the power to
punish marginalized groups who threaten the unanimity of in-group values.
Consequently, research typically consigns authoritarianism to the
political right17,18,21. Nevertheless, work in the past 20 years
demonstrates that left-wing values can also be incorporated into the
operationalization of authoritarianism22,23,24,25,26. Here, we take an
integrative approach and argue that, at its core, authoritarianism entails
the desire for group conformity at the expense of personal autonomy,
accompanied by a deference to in-group authority figures and a desire to
punish those who violate cherished in-group norms — regardless of whether
these in-group norms reflect traditional or progressive values. We thereby
acknowledge that authoritarianism can exist on both the political right
and left, but recognize that it is especially prevalent among adherents of
right-wing ideologies. Because we are necessarily limited by extant work
in the field, our Review focuses predominately (but not exclusively) on
right-wing authoritarianism.
According to the dual process motivational model31,
right-wing authoritarianism originates from the belief that the social
world is an inherently dangerous, unstable, unpredictable and threatening
place. This dangerous worldview activates the motivational goal of
ensuring collective security and stability through the coercive
maintenance of the traditional social order. A dangerous worldview is
acquired through early experience and socialization, and is influenced by
personality traits that predispose an individual to social conformity31,
such as low openness to experience and high conscientiousness32. The
predisposition towards social conformity leads people to identify with the
existing social order and to focus on threats to the status quo. In
addition to the indirect effects these personality traits have on
right-wing authoritarianism through increased threat sensitivity, traits
that foster social conformity directly influence right-wing
authoritarianism by predisposing people to prefer order, structure,
stability and security31.
Given their origins in personality and long-term
socialization processes31, dangerous and competitive worldviews are
relatively stable (but are more malleable than traits). Moreover, similar
to personality traits, these social worldviews can change markedly in
response to relevant situational cues and generate corresponding changes
in right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation.
Specifically, perceived threats to the social order should activate
right-wing authoritarianism, whereas competitive threats should increase
social dominance orientation34.
Contemporary work builds upon this literature and posits
that right-wing authoritarianism has deeper evolutionary47,48 and
biological49,50,51 roots. For example, traits that foster cooperation
likely developed in response to evolutionary challenges that required
hominids in the Pleistocene period to cooperate to obtain high-calorie
foods (such as large game)52. This transition to large-scale group living
also evoked selection pressures on group members who could coordinate with
each other to outperform out-groups competing with the in-group for scarce
resources52. Accordingly, early hominids developed the psychological
mechanisms identified by the dual process motivational model to enhance
coordination with others from their in-group, including in-group
identification and a motivation for conformity (for example, the desire to
punish norm violators who weaken in-group coordination efforts)47,48.
Remnants of the evolved psychological mechanisms that separately
facilitate coordination and cooperation manifest today as (high)
right-wing authoritarianism and (low) social dominance orientation,
respectively.
In addition to ostensibly arising from the evolutionary
history of humans, right-wing authoritarianism covaries with physiological
processes, including increased autonomic reactivity to stress70,
heightened disgust sensitivity71 and stronger disease avoidance72. These
findings corroborate the dual process motivational model’s assertion
that right-wing authoritarianism increases people’s sensitivity to
dangerous and threatening stimuli. Moreover, twin studies, which leverage
the differential genetic similarities between monozygotic twins and
dizygotic twins to identify the amount of phenotypic variability
attributable to genes versus the environment, identify a sizable genetic
component to right-wing authoritarianism49,50,51. Some twin studies even
demonstrate that genes explain as much as 50% of the variance in
right-wing authoritarianism73. Yet contrary to meta-analytic work showing
that the variance in many personality traits is mostly explained by
genes74, emerging evidence indicates that shared environments have a
moderate impact on constructs related to right-wing authoritarianism
including social conservatism75 and religiosity76. These latter findings
corroborate initial theorizing that features of the home environment,
including exposure to harsh and punitive parenting, foster right-wing
authoritarianism77. Nevertheless, the broader literature identifies myriad
sociobiological markers of right-wing authoritarianism.
Notably, the deep-seated nature of authoritarianism is
evident in its evolutionary roots48 and heritability49,50,51,73, as well
as its physiological70 and personality81,138 correlates. Importantly,
social — but not economic — threats activate right-wing authoritarianism,
which, in turn, has implications for intergroup relations (for example,
prejudices are directed towards specific groups instead of out-groups in
general) and broader societal attitudes such as anti-environmentalism148,
science scepticism146 and conspiratorial thinking142,143.
⚃ Prescott, S. L., & Logan, A. C. (2018). From
authoritarianism to advocacy: Lifestyle-driven, socially-transmitted
conditions require a transformation in medical training and practice.
Challenges, 9
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https://doi.org/10.3390/challe9010010
⚃ Richey, S. (2017). A birther and a truther: The influence of
the authoritarian personality on conspiracy beliefs.
Politics & Policy, 45
(3), 465–485.
https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12206
⚃ Rubinstein, G. (2003). Authoritarianism and its relation to
creativity: A comparative study among students of design, behavioral
sciences and law.
Personality and Individual Differences, 34
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https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00055-7
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relationship with right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance
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Authoritarianism
— a psychological construct which has been investigated since the
nineteenth century — refers to an attitudinal orientation where
individuals express hostility toward those who do not conform to an ideal
of sameness or an expected way of being (e.g. minorities, deviants, and
dissidents). Other characteristics of the authoritarian ideology are
excessive concern for the opinions of authority, moral fixedness,
preference for the government to be involved in personal matters, and
conformist attitudes. In the political sphere, authoritarianism has been
used to refer to specific political orientations, e.g. an authoritarian
regime. However, in the psychological literature base, authoritarianism is
seen in a broader sense and reflects a general orientation toward
conformity versus deviance. In this entry, when the term authoritarianism
is used it can be considered as equivalent to the term
right-wing authoritarianism
(RWA) which is frequently used by psychologists. Those who strongly
endorse authoritarianism display a marked preference for both remaining
connected with and valuing their ingroups over outsiders. Additionally,
those who are more authoritarian have a greater tendency to endorse
prejudice in varied forms (e.g. moral regulation or ethnocentrism). With
regard to authoritarian thought processes, higher levels of
authoritarianism have been linked with deficiencies in critical thinking
as well as a belief in the world as being frightening and risk-laden.
…The construct of authoritarianism subsumes three
key underlying concepts which are authoritarian aggression, authoritarian
submission, and conventionalism. Authoritarian aggression is the idea that
authoritarians promote aggressive behaviors toward others when such
behavior is supported by authority figures. This aggression is commonly
directed toward those who are noticeably different (e.g. a social
deviant), but can expand to anyone in the disfavor of authority figures.
Authoritarian submission is the belief that members of authority (e.g.
religious and political leaders) should be fervently supported. In the
case of family, parental figures are seen as credible sources of authority
by authoritarians. Some research suggests that while authoritarians do
submit to authority, this depends on whether the authority figure has a
good reputation and their actions are perceived as being in line with the
goal of the collective. The degree of submission shown by authoritarians
varies based on the credibility of the authority figure. Lastly,
conventionalism is the principle that the existing social norms and order
should be maintained.
…The modern conceptualization of authoritarianism
explicitly acknowledges that the interactive effects between the person
with authoritarian predispositions and the environment either trigger or
suppress the expression of authoritarian attitudes.
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